Psychology Careers

Psychology Career Overview

Psychology careers are jobs that apply the science of mind and behavior, from treating mental health conditions to improving workplaces, schools, products and legal decisions. Some roles, such as clinical psychologist, require a doctorate and a license; others, such as counselor or school psychologist, require a master's or specialist degree; and many people with a bachelor's degree in psychology use their training in fields like human resources, research, marketing and social services.

Broadly, psychology careers fall into six categories:

Psychologists work in private practice, hospitals and clinics, schools and universities, government agencies (including the military and Veterans Affairs), businesses and consulting firms, community mental health centers, prisons and courts, and research institutes. If you are deciding where to start, see our guide to the psychology degree.

Clinical and Counseling Careers

Clinical and counseling roles are the best-known psychology careers. They differ mainly in training, licensing and scope:

Clinical Psychologist

Clinical psychologists assess, diagnose and treat mental, emotional and behavioral conditions. They work in hospitals, clinics, private practice, universities and government services, often specializing in areas such as child and adolescent mental health, health psychology, neuropsychology or older adults.

Counseling Psychologist

Counseling psychologists hold a doctorate and are licensed like clinical psychologists, but their training traditionally emphasizes everyday adjustment, career development, relationships and strengths. Many work in university counseling centers, hospitals and private practice. People sometimes use "counseling psychologist" loosely for master's-level counselors, but in most U.S. states the title "psychologist" is legally restricted to licensed doctoral-level practitioners.

Marriage and Family Therapist

Marriage and family therapists treat individuals, couples and families with a focus on relationships, using approaches such as family systems therapy and couples therapy. The BLS reported a median annual wage of $58,510 for marriage and family therapists in May 2023.

School Psychologist

School psychologists support students' learning, behavior and mental health through assessment, counseling, crisis response and consultation with teachers and families. Most hold a specialist-level degree of around 60 graduate credits, including a year-long internship.

Substance Abuse Counselor

Substance use counselors help people with alcohol and drug problems through individual and group counseling, often in treatment centers, hospitals and community programs. Requirements vary widely between states.

Mental Health Counselor

Licensed professional counselors and mental health counselors provide therapy in community agencies, private practice and health systems. The BLS groups them with substance use and behavioral disorder counselors, reporting a median annual wage of $53,710 in May 2023 and projecting much-faster-than-average job growth. For how these professions compare, see psychologist vs. counselor vs. social worker.

Research and Academia

Research Psychologist

Research psychologists design and run studies on behavior and mental processes, analyze data and publish findings. They work in universities, government agencies (such as national health institutes and the military), nonprofit research organizations and, increasingly, technology companies. A PhD is usually required, often followed by postdoctoral research positions.

University Professor

Professors teach, conduct research, supervise students and serve on committees. Tenure-track positions usually require a PhD and a strong publication record, and the academic job market is competitive. Teaching-focused roles exist at community colleges and teaching universities, sometimes with a master's degree for community college teaching.

Experimental Psychologist

Experimental psychologists study basic processes such as perception, memory, learning, attention and decision-making, often using laboratory experiments, eye tracking or brain imaging. Their skills in experimental design and statistics transfer well to industry roles in user research and data science. See our guide to cognitive psychology.

Neuropsychologist

Clinical neuropsychologists assess how brain conditions affect thinking and behavior, using standardized tests to help diagnose conditions such as dementia and brain injury and to plan rehabilitation. The usual path is a doctorate in clinical or counseling psychology followed by a two-year postdoctoral residency in neuropsychology; board certification is available through the American Board of Clinical Neuropsychology. See neuropsychology.

Applied Psychology Careers

Industrial-Organizational Psychologist

Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychologists apply psychology to the workplace: employee selection and assessment, training, leadership development, motivation, teams and organizational change. Many work as consultants or in HR and people-analytics teams. A master's degree is enough for many applied roles, while a PhD is common for senior consulting, research and academic positions. In BLS data for May 2023, I-O psychologists had the highest median pay among psychologist occupations, at $147,420, although they are a small occupation.

Forensic Psychologist

Forensic psychology is the application of psychology to legal questions. Forensic psychologists evaluate competency to stand trial and criminal responsibility, assess violence risk, conduct custody evaluations, treat people in correctional settings and give expert testimony. Licensed forensic psychologists usually hold a doctorate in clinical or counseling psychology with forensic training. See our guide to the forensic psychology degree for the full education path.

Sports Psychologist

Sport and performance psychologists help athletes and other performers with motivation, confidence, focus, anxiety and recovery from injury. Practitioners may be licensed psychologists or hold a master's or doctorate in sport and exercise science or psychology; the Association for Applied Sport Psychology offers the Certified Mental Performance Consultant (CMPC) credential. Full-time positions with teams are few and competitive.

Health Psychologist

Health psychologists study and apply the links between psychology and physical health, helping people manage chronic illness, pain, weight and smoking, and designing public health programs. Most practitioners are licensed psychologists working in hospitals and primary care.

Consumer Psychologist

Consumer psychologists study how people make purchasing decisions and respond to marketing. They often work in market research, advertising, product development or academia, using methods from social and cognitive psychology and behavioral economics.

Human Factors Psychologist

Human factors psychologists and user-experience (UX) researchers design products, interfaces and systems that fit human abilities and limitations, from aircraft cockpits and medical devices to apps and websites. Many hold master's or doctoral degrees in human factors, cognitive or experimental psychology.

Specialized Psychology Fields

Many psychologists specialize in particular populations or settings:

• Child psychologists focus on children's mental health and development, including anxiety, ADHD, autism and behavior; see child psychology.
• Geropsychologists work with older adults on issues such as adjustment to aging, depression, dementia and caregiving; demand is growing as populations age.
• Military psychologists support service members, veterans and their families, often within the armed forces or Veterans Affairs, addressing deployment stress, PTSD and transitions.
• Rehabilitation psychologists help people adjust to disability, injury and chronic illness and maximize independence.
• Environmental psychologists study how physical environments, from homes and workplaces to cities and nature, affect wellbeing and behavior, contributing to design and sustainability projects.

The American Board of Professional Psychology offers board certification in more than a dozen specialties, including clinical, counseling, forensic, clinical neuropsychology, rehabilitation and organizational psychology.

Education Requirements

Bachelor's Degree (4 years)

A bachelor's degree provides a foundation in psychological science, research methods and statistics. On its own it qualifies graduates for entry-level roles such as case manager, behavioral technician, research assistant, HR or recruitment assistant, or social services worker, and it is the first step toward graduate training. Research experience in a faculty lab, a strong academic record and relevant volunteer or work experience all strengthen graduate applications.

Master's Degree (2-3 years)

Master's degrees lead to professional roles in counseling (LPC/LMHC), marriage and family therapy, I-O psychology, applied behavior analysis (with Board Certified Behavior Analyst certification), human factors and research. Clinical master's programs include supervised practicum hours. In most U.S. states, a master's alone does not qualify someone to use the title "psychologist."

Specialist Degree (about 3 years)

The Ed.S. or equivalent specialist degree is the standard entry route for school psychologists, combining coursework with a supervised internship.

Doctoral Degree (4-7 years)

Doctoral degrees prepare graduates for independent practice, research and academic careers:

• PhD (Doctor of Philosophy): emphasizes research, with a dissertation of original research. Clinical PhD programs follow a scientist-practitioner model and often fund students through assistantships. Typically 5-7 years including internship.
• PsyD (Doctor of Psychology): emphasizes clinical practice, with less research training. Programs are often larger and more expensive, with less funding. Typically 4-6 years including internship.

Clinical, counseling and school doctoral programs accredited by the American Psychological Association include a one-year predoctoral internship.

Post-Doctoral Training

Many states require a year of supervised postdoctoral experience before licensure, and some specialties, such as clinical neuropsychology, expect a two-year postdoctoral residency. Board certification and continuing education follow throughout a career.

Salary and Job Outlook

The most reliable U.S. salary data come from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Occupational Outlook Handbook. The figures below are BLS median annual wages for May 2023 (half of workers earned more, half less). Pay varies widely by experience, region and setting, so check the current handbook and state-level data for up-to-date figures.

Psychiatrists, who are medical doctors, earn substantially more than psychologists, but the path requires medical school and a psychiatry residency; see psychiatrist vs. psychologist.

Job Growth Projections

The BLS projects employment of psychologists to grow about 7% from 2023 to 2033, faster than the average for all occupations, driven by demand for mental health services in hospitals, schools, social service agencies and for an aging population. Employment of substance abuse, behavioral disorder and mental health counselors is projected to grow much faster, at around 19% over the same period.

Factors Affecting Salary

• Degree and license: doctoral-level licensed psychologists earn more than master's-level clinicians on average.
• Specialty: I-O psychology and some medical and forensic specialties tend to pay more than community mental health roles.
• Setting: government, hospital and private-sector roles often pay more than nonprofit and community settings; private practice income varies widely.
• Location: pay generally tracks the local cost of living and demand.
• Experience and credentials: board certification, supervisory roles and years in practice increase earnings.

Getting Started in Psychology

High School Preparation

High school students interested in psychology can take AP Psychology (see our AP Psychology guide), statistics, biology and writing-intensive courses, and look for volunteer roles that involve helping people.

Undergraduate Steps

1. Choose a solid program. APA accredits doctoral programs, not undergraduate degrees, so look for strong research opportunities, statistics training and faculty mentorship.
2. Get research experience. Joining a faculty lab is one of the most valuable steps for graduate admissions.
3. Build relationships. Faculty who know your work can write strong recommendation letters.
4. Gain applied experience. Volunteer or work in mental health, education or community settings.
5. Check admissions requirements. Many psychology graduate programs have dropped or made optional the GRE since 2020, so check each program.

Building Experience

Useful experience includes research assistant roles, peer support or mentoring programs, work as a behavioral technician, teaching assistant positions, and supervised volunteering with community organizations. Some crisis lines accept trained volunteers; they provide thorough training and supervision.

Skills to Develop

Across psychology careers, employers value clear writing and speaking, empathy and listening skills, critical thinking, statistics and data analysis, ethical judgment and the ability to work with people from diverse backgrounds.

Licensure and Certification

Psychology Licensure

To practice independently as a psychologist in the U.S., you generally need a doctoral degree (usually from an APA- or CPA-accredited program for health service psychology), supervised experience that varies by state, a passing score on the Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP), and any state jurisprudence or oral exams. Licenses must be renewed, typically with continuing education requirements. The PSYPACT interstate compact allows licensed psychologists in participating states to provide telepsychology across state lines under certain conditions.

Counseling Licensure

Master's-level clinicians are licensed by separate boards: licensed professional counselors (LPC or LMHC), licensed marriage and family therapists (LMFT) and licensed clinical social workers (LCSW). Each requires a relevant master's degree, typically two or more years of supervised post-degree experience and a licensing exam.

Specialty Certifications

• ABPP: board certification for psychologists in more than a dozen specialties.
• ABCN: board certification in clinical neuropsychology (through ABPP).
• NCSP: Nationally Certified School Psychologist (NASP).
• NBCC: National Certified Counselor credential.
• BCBA: Board Certified Behavior Analyst.
• CMPC: Certified Mental Performance Consultant (sport and performance psychology).

Maintaining Credentials

Practitioners maintain licenses by completing continuing education, renewing on schedule, following professional ethics codes and, where relevant, carrying professional liability insurance.

Career Development

Professional Organizations

Key organizations include the American Psychological Association (APA) and its divisions, the Association for Psychological Science (APS), the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP), and the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). Most offer student memberships, conferences and career resources.

Networking and Advancement

Careers advance through specialization, supervision and leadership roles, research and publication, teaching, consultation and, for some, building a private practice. Mentorship, conferences and collaboration on projects help at every stage.

Alternative Career Paths

Psychology training is valuable well beyond traditional roles. Graduates work in user-experience research, data analysis and people analytics, human resources and talent management, market research, science communication and journalism, public policy and advocacy, and coaching. Our guides to executive coaching and therapist vs. life coach explain how coaching differs from therapy.

Current Trends in Psychology Careers

• Telepsychology: remote assessment and therapy expanded rapidly from 2020 and remain common.
• Integrated care: more psychologists work within primary care and medical teams.
• Digital tools and AI: apps, digital therapeutics and AI are changing some tasks, raising new ethical questions; see psychology and AI.
• Workforce shortages: many regions report long waits for mental health care, especially for children and in rural areas.
• Diversity and cultural responsiveness: training programs increasingly emphasize serving diverse communities.
• Prevention and early intervention: schools, workplaces and communities are investing in earlier support.